Rust Cloudflare Workers: Turnstile Example 🤖 # Rust Cloudflare Workers: Turnstile Example 🤖 #

⚙️ Project Setup #

In the previous, getting started with Rust Cloudflare workers tutorial, we built up a basic REST API, based on the worker Rust template

🤖 CAPTCHA API Route #

We will start by adding a new CAPTHCA route to the router code, in src/lib.rs. The code will listen for form submissions sent from the frontend. In a real world application, that POST request would contain form field data, filled out by the site visitor, as well as a cf-turnstile-response field. Here, we won’t look at business logic for processing the form inputs, so just pull that cf-turnstile-response field off the incoming POST request.

    
23 #[event(fetch)]
24 async fn main(req: Request, env: Env, _ctx: Context) -> Result<Response> {
25     log_request(&req);
26     let router = Router::new();
27 
28     router
29         .get("/health_check", |_, _| Response::ok("OK"))
30         .post_async("/v0/captcha", |mut req, ctx| async move {
31             // Read in inputs
32             let turnstile_response = match req.form_data().await {
33                 Ok(value) => {
34                     // Get `cf-turnstile-response` field if it exists
35                 }
36                 Err(_) => {
37                     return Response::error("Bad request", 400);
38                 }
39             };
40 
41             // Prepare Turnstile verification HTTP request
42 
43 
44             // Verify and process JSON response
45 
46             Response::ok("OK")
47         })
48         .run(req, env)
49         .await
50 }

  

We call req.form_data() to pull form fields off the request. This returns a Rust result  , which we match on. If, for example, the request was sent in the wrong format, and we weren’t able to parse it as form data, we would end up in the Err arm, and would return a Bad request response.

Assuming the request is well-formed, we next want to try to get the value, for the cf-turnstile-response field.

    
32             let turnstile_response = match req.form_data().await {
33                 Ok(value) => {
34                     match value.get("cf-turnstile-response") {
35                         Some(FormEntry::Field(field_value)) => field_value,
36                         Some(_) => return Response::error("Bad request", 400),
37                         None => return Response::error("Bad request", 400),
38                     }
39                 }
40                 Err(_) => {
41                     return Response::error("Bad request", 400);
42                 }
43             }

  

The form data might be well-formed, but missing the cf-turnstile-response field. Options, in Rust  , are used to represent a variable which can have a value of a known type or an alternative, unexpected or invalid value. value, in the code block above, is the identifier we assigned to the form data, and calling get on it returns a Rust Option. That Option will be None, if the cf-turnstile-response is missing. When the field exists, it could be a file or field string value. We only care about the field value, and anything else (represented by the _ should result in a bad request response).

The code above works just fine, though we can make it a little cleaner using Rust if let syntax, in place of the inner match:

    
32             let turnstile_response = match req.form_data().await {
33                     if let Some(FormEntry::Field(turnstile_response_value)) =
34                         value.get("cf-turnstile-response")
35                     {
36                         turnstile_response_value
37                     } else {
38                         return Response::error("Bad request", 400);
39                     }
40                 Err(_) => {
41                     return Response::error("Bad request", 400);
42                 }
43             }

  

How does that work? Let’s see an example. We get a thermometer reading. This will be a number (64-bit float) if everything went well. If the thermometer got unplugged, though, we will get nothing back. Using an option to represent this, the temperature could be Some(25.0), as an example of a normal reading, or None when there is no reading for some reason.

    
    let temperature: Option<f64> = get_reading();
 
    if let Some(value) = temperature {
        console_log!("The temperature is {value} degrees")
    } else {
        console_log!("The thermometer broke.")
    }

  

For our Some(25.0) example, here, value will be 25.0, and we can print the temperature. For the None case, we have no need for value, and just say there is no reading.

Our turnstile example takes it up another level, as we specify we only use the true if value.get("cf-turnstile-response") is Some, and also it is of FormEntry::Field type.

⚽️ Reading Request Headers #

Next, we can, optionally, pass the client IP address to Cloudflare in our verification request (we look at that request itself in a moment). The IP address might be included in an HTTP header on the incoming form request to our API. We can check for the CF-Connecting-IP header and get its value with:

    
let client_ip_option = req.headers().get("CF-Connecting-IP").unwrap();

  

The req.headers().get function call returns a Result, like (req.form_data()). “unwrap” here, is a way of handling the result without pattern matching, causing a panic in the event of an error.

Pulling it all together, we can build an HTTP request, to send to Turnstile for the verification result using the reqwest crate:

    
45 			// Prepare Turnstile verification HTTP request
46             let client = reqwest::Client::new();
47  
48             let mut body_form_map = HashMap::<&str, String>::new();
49             if let Some(value) = client_ip_option {
50                 body_form_map.insert("remoteip", value);
51             };
52             body_form_map.insert("response", turnstile_response);
53             body_form_map.insert("secret", turnstile_secret);

  

To be able to use reqwest, though, we should add it in Cargo.toml:

    
16 [dependencies]
17 reqwest = { version = "0.11.18", features = ["json"]}
18 serde = "1"
19 worker = "0.0.17"

  

Of course, we have only prepared the request, and not sent it! Here is the missing code:

    
45 			// Prepare Turnstile verification HTTP request
46             let client = reqwest::Client::new();
47  
48             let mut body_form_map = HashMap::<&str, String>::new();
49             if let Some(value) = client_ip_option {
50                 body_form_map.insert("remoteip", value);
51             };
52             body_form_map.insert("response", turnstile_response);
53             body_form_map.insert("secret", turnstile_secret);
54  
55             // Verify and process JSON response
56             match client
57                 .post("https://challenges.cloudflare.com/turnstile/v0/siteverify")
58                 .form(&body_form_map)
59                 .send()
60                 .await
61             {
62                 Ok(value) => match value.json::<TurnstileVerifyResponse>().await {
63                     Ok(data) => {
64                         let TurnstileVerifyResponse { success } = data;
65                         console_log!("Turnstile verified: {success}");
66                         Ok(Response::ok("OK")?.with_headers(headers))
67                     }
68                     Err(_) => Response::error("Bad request", 400),
69                 },
70                 Err(_) => Response::error("Bad gateway", 501),
71             }
72         })
73         .run(req, env)
74         .await
75 }

  

We are sending the data as POST form request. Naturally, reqwest supports JSON POST requests as well as GET and other types of HTTP request  .

🤫 Secrets and Environment Variables #

In the previous post, we saw how you can read meta from Cargo.toml, made available as environment variables by Rust. Let’s look a little more at environment variable handling. Wrangler lets you define variables in the wrangler.toml file. If you need to store secret variables, hang on a moment, we will see something designed specifically for secrets in a moment.

We expect visitors to submit forms from a browser, and so we need to cater for CORS requests  . Specifically, our response needs to include the Access-Control-Allow-Origin header. To see an example of storing variables in wrangler.toml, we will add a list of allowed CORS origins there. Update wrangler.toml:

    
1 name = "worker-rust"
2 main = "build/worker/shim.mjs"
3 compatibility_date = "2023-03-22"
4 
5 [vars]
6 CORS_ORIGIN = "http://127.0.0.1:3001,https://example.com"
7 
8 [build]
9 command = "cargo install -q worker-build && worker-build --release"

  

We can then access that parameter from Rust code using:

    
ctx.var("CORS_ORIGIN")?.to_string()

  

Secrets #

You can push secrets into your Cloudflare production environment from the Terminal:

    
pnpm wrangler secret put TURNSTILE_SECRETKEY

  

However, for local development, use a .dev.vars file in your project root directory:

    
TURNSTILE_SECRETKEY="0x11111111111_abcdefghijklmnopqrstu"

  

Then to access this value from your Rust code, use:

    
ctx.secret("TURNSTILE_SECRETKEY")?.to_string();

  

🧰 CORS Header Utility Function #

We will add a utility function, before wrapping up with the final version of the code. You can add this code in src/lib.rs before the main function:

    
27 fn cors_response_headers(request_headers: &worker::Headers, cors_origin: &str) -> worker::Headers {
28     let mut headers = worker::Headers::new();
29     let origin = match request_headers.get("Origin").unwrap() {
30         Some(value) => value,
31         None => return headers,
32     };
33     headers
34         .set("Access-Control-Allow-Headers", "Content-Type")
35         .expect("Unable to set header");
36     headers
37         .set("Access-Control-Allow-Methods", "POST")
38         .expect("Unable to set header");
39     headers.set("Vary", "Origin").expect("Unable to set header");
40     if cors_origin.split(',').any(|val| val == cors_origin) {
41         headers
42             .set("Access-Control-Allow-Origin", &origin)
43             .expect("Unable to set header");
44     }
45     headers
46         .set("Access-Control-Max-Age", "86400")
47         .expect("Unable to set header");
48     headers
49 }

  

The CAPTCHA route code will call this function, passing in the request headers and the comma separated list of allowed CORS origins. The request headers should include an Origin header, which we can check against the list of allowed origins.

Two points to note here are:

• the use of expect to handle results; and
• the Rust closure  in lines 40-44.

expect works like unwrap and causes a panic when the result is not OK. The difference is that it takes an argument, which gives some feedback if it does panic.

cors_origin.split(',') in line 40 splits a comma separated list, in a string such as "http://127.0.0.1:3001,https://example.com" into a vector of strings like: ["http://127.0.0.1:3001", "https://example.com"] and then returns an iterator over that vector. We can then call the any closure on that value, looking for matches, and return true if there is a match. This functional approach provides a cleaner alternative than an explicit loop over the vector elements, in this case.

🖥️ Final Router Code #

Pulling everything together, your final version will look something like this:

    
#[event(fetch)]
async fn main(req: Request, env: Env, _ctx: Context) -> Result<Response> {
    log_request(&req);
    let router = Router::new();
 
    router
        .get("/health_check", |_, _| Response::ok("OK"))
        .options("/v0/captcha", |req, ctx| {
            let headers =
                cors_response_headers(req.headers(), &ctx.var("CORS_ORIGIN")?.to_string());
            Ok(Response::empty()
                .unwrap()
                .with_headers(headers)
                .with_status(204))
        })
        .post_async("/v0/captcha", |mut req, ctx| async move {
            // Read in inputs
            let client_ip_option = req.headers().get("CF-Connecting-IP").unwrap();
            let turnstile_secret = ctx.secret("TURNSTILE_SECRETKEY")?.to_string();
 
            let headers =
                cors_response_headers(req.headers(), &ctx.var("CORS_ORIGIN")?.to_string());
 
            let turnstile_response = match req.form_data().await {
                Ok(value) => {
                    if let Some(FormEntry::Field(turnstile_response_value)) =
                        value.get("cf-turnstile-response")
                    {
                        turnstile_response_value
                    } else {
                        return Response::error("Bad request", 400);
                    }
                }
                Err(_) => {
                    return Response::error("Bad request", 400);
                }
            };
 
            // Prepare Turnstile verification HTTP request
            let client = reqwest::Client::new();
            let mut body_form_map = HashMap::<&str, String>::new();
            if let Some(value) = client_ip_option {
                body_form_map.insert("remoteip", value);
            };
            body_form_map.insert("response", turnstile_response);
            body_form_map.insert("secret", turnstile_secret);
 
            // Verify and process JSON response
            match client
                .post("https://challenges.cloudflare.com/turnstile/v0/siteverify")
                .form(&body_form_map)
                .send()
                .await
            {
                Ok(value) => match value.json::<TurnstileVerifyResponse>().await {
                    Ok(data) => {
                        let TurnstileVerifyResponse { success } = data;
                        console_log!("Turnstile verified: {success}");
                        Ok(Response::ok("OK")?.with_headers(headers))
                    }
                    Err(_) => Response::error("Bad request", 400),
                },
                Err(_) => Response::error("Bad gateway", 501),
            }
        })
        .run(req, env)
        .await
}

  

Here, we just put everything together, also adding an extra captcha route, listening for CORS OPTIONS requests.

💯 Rust Cloudflare Workers: Check your Work #

To test this out, you might want to spin up a quick frontend using Deno Fresh or Astro. You will need to configure Turnstile in your Cloudflare account to get a site key and secret key.

🙌🏽 Rust Cloudflare Workers: Wrapping Up #

We continued our exploration of Rust and Cloudflare workers adding new routes to the API. More specifically, we have seen:

• how to parse form data on an incoming HTTP request using Rust Cloudflare workers;
• how to use reqwest to make REST requests to external servers; and
• examples of adding response headers on API endpoints.

The Rust Cloudflare Workers Turnstile Example code is in the Rodney Lab GitHub repo  .

I hope you found this article useful, and am keen to hear where you will go next, as well as potential improvements, both to the Rust code and explanations above. Also, let me know if you would like to see another edition in this series, and which feature would be interesting to explore.

🏁 Rust Cloudflare Workers: Summary #

Which Rust crate can you use to send HTTP requests in an API? #

Reqwest is a fantastic, high-level crate for sending REST requests. It uses async methods, by default, but also offers blocking alternatives. On top, reqwest uses rustls under the hood. With that being a pure Rust TLS implementation, reqwest will work just fine in WASM environments.

What is the difference between Rust unwrap and expect error-handling methods? #

With expect, you can include an error message to show when the error arm is hit. Both unwrap and expect cause execution to panic, just unwrap has no arguments.

When would you use an Option in Rust? #

A great example of using an Option in Rust is for representing empirical data, like temperature measurements. You might want to use a single identifier to represent both valid temperature readings and also those where something went wrong. Using a Rust Option, the variable would be `Some(x)` when the reading is valid and `None` otherwise.

🙏🏽 Rust Cloudflare Workers: Feedback #

Have you found the post useful? Would you prefer to see posts on another topic instead? Get in touch with ideas for new posts. Also, if you like my writing style, get in touch if I can write some posts for your company site on a consultancy basis. Read on to find ways to get in touch, further below. If you want to support posts similar to this one and can spare a few dollars, euros or pounds, please consider supporting me through Buy me a Coffee.

Rodney

@askRodney

Just put together an extension to the Getting Started with 🦀 Rust Cloudflare Workers post.

We build out the router seeing how to parse form data, and also make REST requests to external services.

Hope you find it useful!

#learnrust #askRodneyhttps://t.co/4nXdrOgXFx

— Rodney (@askRodney) June 14, 2023

Finally, feel free to share the post on your social media accounts for all your followers who will find it useful. As well as leaving a comment below, you can get in touch via @askRodney on Twitter and also askRodney on Telegram  . Also, see further ways to get in touch with Rodney Lab. I post regularly on Astro as well as SvelteKit. Also, subscribe to the newsletter to keep up-to-date with our latest projects.